Transplantation has been developed to an effctive strategy for treatment of end stage diseases of multiple organs since 1950 ' s . despite success of current immunosuppressive drugs , transplantation immunologists and surgeons are still seeking to achieve tolerance to allograft . there are several different mechanisms such as clonal deletion , anergy , neglect , immuno regulation . which maintain tolerance to self - antigen . some strategies , derived from these mechanisms has been proved to be encouraged in suppression of allograft rejection 二十世纪五十年代以来，器官移植的进展使同种异体器官移植成为治疗多种器官终末期疾病的有效手段。尽管目前免疫抑制方案非常有效，但免疫耐受仍是移植免疫学家和外科医生关注的课题。有多个机制使免疫系统对自身抗原保持耐受，如：克隆清除、忽略、失能、免疫调节。
Four mechanisms of sperm competition ( sperm stratification , sperm incapacitation , sperm removal and sperm flushing ) , four impact factors on paternity ( mating order , number of mated males , mating intervals and cryptic female choice ) and three kinds of male ' s adaptation mechanisms of sperm competition ( morphological adaptations , physiological adaptations and behavioral adaptations ) are reviewed 阐述了精子竞争的概念，综述了精子层化、精子失能、精子移除和精子冲洗4种昆虫精子竞争的机制以及雄性在形态、生理和行为上3类避免精子竞争的机制，详细讨论了交配次序、交配雄性数量、交配间隔以及隐秘雌性选择4个影响父权偏向的因素。
